Travellers in Ireland: An Examination of Discrimination and Racism: Part 4
Racism and Racial DiscriminationRacism is a specific form of discrimination usually associated with skin colour and ethnicity. It is an ideology of superiority which provides a rationalisation for oppression. It also involves an abuse of power by one group over another group. So, while racism involves negative stereotypes and assumptions it should not be reduced simply to attitudes thereby equating it with prejudice, as pointed out earlier in this paper. The reality of unequal power combined with prejudice enables some groups to treat others in racist ways by denying them access to opportunities, resources and decision-making processes.
UNESCO, in its Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice (1978) provides the following definition:
"Any theory which involves the claim that racial or ethnic groups are inherently superior or inferior, thus implying that some would be entitled to dominate or eliminate others, presumed to be inferior, or which bases value judgements on racial differentiation, has no scientific foundation and is contrary to the moral and ethical principles of humanity".
The UN International Convention of Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969) defines racial discrimination as follows:
"Any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life".
Approaches to Racism
While these working definitions have broad acceptance, the concept of racism is frequently contested among academics and others. There is the polarisation between those who argue that certain societies are inherently racist and those who claim that racism is a less serious issue related to the anti-social behaviour of some individuals. There are also a variety of approaches which can be categorised as follows: moral, biological, psychological, multi-cultural and structural (see table).
|
APPROACH |
ASSUMPTIONS |
IMPLICATIONS |
|
Moral |
The issue of racism is viewed as an evil which results from original sin, human wickedness, or such human failing as greed, selfishness, and ignorance. | Efforts to tackle racism involve self-examination, change of attitude, aspiring to nobler moral values, and in affirming the dignity and worth of each individual. |
|
Biological |
Prejudice and racism are seen as natural and related to genetics. Biological differences such as skin colour are assumed to be associated with intellectual and/or moral capacities. Social disadvantages are portrayed as a reflection of innate inferiority. | Solutions to racism are sought through segregation (apartheid) and clear boundary maintenance. |
|
Psychological |
Learning experiences, personality traits and psychological processes are viewed as giving rise to certain attitudes which are described as racist. Certain personalities may be viewed as resulting in transferring blame onto others. | Solutions may be related to therapy, building confidence and self-esteem. |
|
Multi-Cultural |
Racism is understood as arising from the dynamics of cultural differences and tradition. A group may wish to retain its purity by excluding other cultural groups and by guarding its distinctive identity. | Solutions are sought through exchanges and exposure; improved communication; development of familiarity to language, customs and traditions. |
|
Structural |
The causes of racism are located within the main structural features and social processes of the dominant society. Structurally-created problems of poverty, unemployment, housing shortages and so on are seen as fuelling racial prejudice. Social structures (political, economic, ideological) are seen as restricting the life chances of minority ethnic groups. | Solutions are sought through legislation, codes of practice and affirmative action. |
The moral, psychological and cultural approaches tend to depoliticise the issue of racism by focusing almost exclusively on individual attitudes and behaviours dislocated from their social, political, economical, and historical contexts. Solutions based on the moral approach rightly draw attention to the reality that racism is a moral issue even though the treatment of Travellers is rarely presented in this way. If the Churches, for instance, speak out on Traveller issues they tend to focus on prejudice rather than racism, thereby over-relying on attitudinal change. The psychological approach, as Kovel argues, is by no means a sufficient tool for understanding the phenomenon of racism; it is, however, a necessary one: "Racism, far from being the simple delusion of a bigoted and ignorant minority, is a set of beliefs whose structure arises from the deepest levels of our lives - from the fabric of assumptions we make about the world, ourselves, and others, and from the patterns of our fundamental social activities." Kovel shows how various fantasies and personality traits can coalesce into . race. prejudice and how this sheds light on the history of racism: "Racist psychology is a prerequisite of racial institutions, and racist institutions engender a racist psychology." (Kovel, 1971)
The biological approach draws attention to the objective reality of certain physical differences and the specific form of racism associated with skin colour. Anti-racism does not mean a denial of these differences but does challenge the social meanings and interpretations attributed to them. UNESCO statements have debunked the so-called scientific racism based on biological determinism. However, this theory keeps recurring in the form of socio-biology, even though most geneticists and biologists acknowledge that: "The designation of the world. s population into distinctive racial categories can no longer be considered a tenable scientific enterprise" (Troyna and Williams, 1986).
The multi-cultural approach is popular with many people because it is non-threatening, and can improve mutual appreciation and understanding between individuals and groups; it can also contribute to overcoming communication problems and misunderstanding, which may fuel racism. However this approach is criticised for diverting attention away from power differentials, structural oppression and for overestimating ignorance as the main factor in the creation of racism.
The structural approach provides a sociological framework for understanding racism in the context of changing historical, political, economic and social processes. This approach provides a mechanism for going beyond symptoms and for addressing root causes. It also exposes how routine practices and procedures result in black and minority ethnic groups having lower incomes, higher unemployment, worse health, accommodation and life chances than the majority population and less influence on the decisions which affect their lives. However, the approach has been accused of making inflated claims (see Miles, 1989) and for deterministic and doctrinaire explanations which ignore concrete situations and individual personalities. (Donald and Rattansi, 1992)
-Anti-Traveller Discrimination and Racism
-Approaches to Racism
-Conclusion